Reference-frame-independent, measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution using fewer quantum states.

Reference-frame-independent quantum key distribution (RFI-QKD) provides a practical way to generate secret keys between two remote parties without sharing common reference frames. On the other hand, measurement-device-independent QKD (MDI-QKD) offers a high level of security, as it is immune to all quantum hacking attempts to measurement devices. The combination of these two QKD protocols, i.e., RFI-MDI-QKD, is one of the most fascinating QKD protocols, since it holds advantages of both practicality and security. For further practicality of RFI-MDI-QKD, it is beneficial to reduce the implementation complexity. Here, we show that RFI-MDI-QKD can be implemented using fewer quantum states than those of its original proposal. We find that, in principle, the number of quantum states for one of the parties can be reduced from six to three without compromising security. Compared to conventional RFI-MDI-QKD where both parties transmit six quantum states, it significantly simplifies the implementation of the QKD protocol. We also verify the feasibility of the scheme with a proof-of-principle experiment.

Extended phase-matching properties of periodically poled potassium niobate crystals for mid-infrared polarization-entangled photon-pair generation.

We report the extended phase-matching (EPM) properties of two kinds of periodically poled potassium niobate (KNbO3 or KN) crystals (i.e., periodic 180°- and 90°-domain structures) that are highly useful for the generation of polarization-entangled photon pairs in the mid-infrared (IR) spectral region. Under the degenerate Type II spontaneous parametric downconversion process satisfying the EPM condition, an input single photon with a frequency of 2ω generates a pair of synchronized photons with identical frequencies of ω that are orthogonally polarized with respect to each other (i.e., the frequency-coincident, polarization-entangled biphoton states). Our simulation results illustrate that the EPM is achievable in the mid-IR spectral region: at the wavelengths of 3.80 µm and 4.03 µm for periodic 90°- and 180°-domain structures, respectively. We will describe in detail the EPM properties of both cases in terms of interaction types and the corresponding nonlinear optic coefficients, phase-matching bandwidths, and domain poling periods. The calculated EPM bandwidths are much broader than 200 nm in the mid-IR for both cases, exhibiting a great potential for nonlinear-optic signal processing in quantum communication systems operating in the mid-IR bands.

Cosine apodization of dual-resonance all-fiber acousto-optic tunable filters.

We experimentally demonstrate a novel cosine apodization technique for dual-resonance all-fiber acoustic-optic tunable filter. The technique is based on a hybrid control of input acoustic polarization state and circumferential fiber twist. We will show that intrinsic sidelobe spectra occurring between dual filtering bands are successfully suppressed through our approach, which will be also theoretically confirmed via our analytical and numerical studies. The results illustrate that the spectral positions of each resonance are tuned linearly and continuously by the fiber twist, and that overall sidelobe spectra between two resonances are suppressed regardless of fiber twist angle. The proposed scheme is useful to minimize cross talk between adjacent wavelength channels in optical sensor systems. We highlight that our approach is directly applicable to low-noise matched filtering.

Fabrication of electroless nickel plated aluminum freeform mirror for an infrared off-axis telescope.

Freeform mirrors can be readily fabricated by a single point diamond turning (SPDT) machine. However, this machining process often leaves mid-frequency errors (MFEs) that generate undesirable diffraction effects and stray light. In this work, we propose a novel thin electroless nickel plating procedure to remove MFE on freeform surfaces. The proposed procedure has a distinct advantage over a typical thick plating method in that the machining process can be endlessly repeated until the designed mirror surface is obtained. This is of great importance because the sophisticated surface of a freeform mirror cannot be optimized by a typical SPDT machining process, which can be repeated only several times before the limited thickness of the nickel plating is consumed. We will also describe the baking process of a plated mirror to improve the hardness of the mirror surface, which is crucial for minimizing the degradation of that mirror surface that occurs during the polishing process. During the whole proposed process, the changes in surface figures and textures are monitored and cross checked by two different types of measurements, as well as by an interference pattern test. The experimental results indicate that the proposed thin electroless nickel plating procedure is very simple but powerful for removing MFEs on freeform mirror surfaces.

Band-rejection filtering based on lossy torsional acousto-optic coupling in a single polarization fiber.

We propose and demonstrate novel band-rejection filtering scheme based on lossy torsional acousto-optic (AO) coupling in a single polarization fiber. Simulation results show that the polarization insensitive notch depth of -30 dB is achievable for a 2-m-long fiber in the state-of-the-art fiber manufacturing technology. More efficient band-rejection in excess of -44 dB could be also feasible in practical fiber length. Good agreement between our numerical simulations and proof-of-principle experiments is obtained in optical communication C-band. The measured notch depth is -29.4 dB for a low loss polarization mode after propagating an AO interaction length of 49.8 cm. The filtered wavelength could be tuned linearly by the variable acoustic transducer frequency with the slope of 0.61 nm/kHz, and the polarization dependence of notch depth was measured to 0.8 dB in our setup. Our experiments confirm the validity and practicality of the approach, and illustrate the in-fiber torsional AO band-rejection filter with simpler device configuration is achievable.

Refractive index sensor based on a polymer fiber directional coupler for low index sensing.

We propose, numerically analyze and experimentally demonstrate a novel refractive index sensor specialized for low index sensing. The device is based on a directional coupler architecture implemented in a single microstructured polymer optical fiber incorporating two waveguides within it: a single-mode core and a satellite waveguide consisting of a hollow high-index ring. This hollow channel is filled with fluid and the refractive index of the fluid is detected through changes to the wavelength at which resonant coupling occurs between the two waveguides. The sensor design was optimized for both higher sensitivity and lower detection limit, with simulations and experiments demonstrating a sensitivity exceeding 1.4 × 10(3) nm per refractive index unit. Simulations indicate a detection limit of ~2 × 10(-6) refractive index units is achievable. We also numerically investigate the performance for refractive index changes localized at the surface of the holes, a case of particular importance for biosensing.

Free-fatty-acid-regulating effects of fermented red ginseng are mediated by hormones and by the autonomic nervous system.

BACKGROUND: Understanding what causes changes in the flux of free fatty acids (FFA) is important to elucidate the etiology of metabolic syndrome. The first aim of this study was to test whether or not hormones and the autonomic nervous system influence blood FFA levels. A secondary aim was to test by means of a multiple group path analysis whether the consumption of fermented red ginseng (FRG; Panax ginseng) would influence those causal relationships. METHODS: Ninety-three postmenopausal women (age 50-73 yr) were randomly divided into two groups. One group (44 women; age, 58.4 ± 5.9 yr; body mass index, 23.6 ± 2.5 kg/m(2)) was supplied placebo capsules and the other group (49 women, age 58.4 ± 5.5 yr; body mass index, 22.9 ± 2.4 kg/m(2)) was supplied FRG capsules. Both prior to and after the study (2 wk), blood samples were collected from the participants and several blood variables were measured and analyzed. RESULTS: Squared multiple correlations of FFA were 0.699 in the placebo group and 0.707 in the FRG group. The unstandardized estimate of estradiol (E2) for FFA was 0.824 in both groups. CONCLUSION: The path coefficients of cortisol and the branchial pulse for FFA were significantly different between the FRG group and the placebo group.

The effect of fermented red ginseng on depression is mediated by lipids.

OBJECTIVES: The cortico-limbic hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis has emerged as an important area for the cause and treatment of depression. The primary aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that hormones, energy sources, and minerals have a causal relationship with depression. The secondary aim was to test whether consumption of fermented red ginseng (FRG) would influence that causal relationship. METHODS: For this study, 93 postmenopausal women were randomly divided into two groups. One group (49 women) was supplied with FRG capsules, and the other group (44 women) with placebo capsules, for 2 weeks. Both before and after the study, the participants filled out the Beck depression inventory questionnaire, and then blood samples were collected. The structural regression model was established. The causative latent variables were hormone (adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol), energy (low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, total cholesterol, and blood glucose), mineral 1 (potassium, sodium, chloride, and iron), and mineral 2 (magnesium, calcium), and the resultant latent variables were cognitive depression (CD) and somatic depression. The goodness-of-fit statistics of the final model were good (root mean square error of approximation =0.033, comparative fit index =0.877, and Tucker-Lewis index =0.870). RESULTS: The structural regression path of the energy factor on CD showed a significant difference between the FRG group (0.259) and the placebo group (-0.201). The factor loadings of total cholesterol (1.236) and LDL cholesterol (1.000) on the energy factor were much higher than that of glucose (0.166). CONCLUSION: Based on the analysis used in this model, the effect of FRG consumption on CD occurred via the energy factor, which is mainly attributable to cholesterol.

Spectral shaping of an all-fiber torsional acousto-optic tunable filter.

Spectral shaping of an all-fiber torsional acousto-optic (AO) tunable filter is studied. The technique is based on the axial modulation of AO coupling strength along a highly birefringent optical fiber, which is achieved by tailoring the outer diameter of the fiber along its propagation axis. Two kinds of filter spectral shaping schemes-Gaussian apodization and matched filtering with triple resonance peaks-are proposed and numerically investigated under realistic experimental conditions: at the 50-cm-long AO interaction length of the fiber and at half of the original fiber diameter as the minimum thickness of the tailored fiber section. The results show that the highest peak of sidelobe spectra in filter transmission is suppressed from 11.64% to 0.54% via Gaussian modulation of the AO coupling coefficient (κ). Matched filtering with triple resonance peaks operating with a single radio frequency signal is also achieved by cosine modulation of κ, of which the modulation period determines the spectral distance between two satellite peaks located in both wings of the main resonance peak. The splitting of two satellite peaks in the filter spectra reaches 48.2 nm while the modulation period varies from 7.7 to 50 cm. The overall peak power of two satellite resonances is calculated to be 22% of the main resonance power. The results confirm the validity and practicality of our approach, and we predict robust and stable operation of the designed all-fiber torsional AO filters.

Diabetes-ameliorating effects of fermented red ginseng and causal effects on hormonal interactions: testing the hypothesis by multiple group path analysis.

Although diagnostic criteria for metabolic syndrome (MtS) vary among various health professionals and organizations, blood glucose dysregulation and insulin resistance are common to all definitions. Red ginseng is beneficial for glucose regulation and insulin sensitivity but the mechanism is not yet elucidated. Ginsenosides Rh1 and Rg3 act as ligands of the estrogen receptor, and Rh2 and compound K act as ligands of the glucocorticoid receptors, which may influence the diabetes markers. The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that there are significant causal relationships among diabetes-related markers and several hormones, and assess whether or not the consumption of fermented red ginseng (FRG) influences these causal relationships by multiple group path analysis and conventional statistical analyses. The 93 postmenopausal women were randomly divided into two groups for a double-blind trial. FRG powder and placebo were provided for 2 weeks. The data were analyzed by multiple group path analysis and the mean between groups were compared. The model's goodness of fit was excellent, with a root mean square error of approximation of 0.00, and comparative fit index of 1.00. The FRG group exhibited significantly increased levels of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS), growth hormone (GH), and estradiol (E2), and they exhibited decreased levels of glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c), insulin, and homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance. With regard to the hypothesis, the blood glucose lowering effects of FRG were due to the negative effects of aldosterone and increased GH, which was associated with DHEAS and E2. Even though the differences of variables between both groups were small, the total effects of these variables may indicate beneficial changes for the prevention of diabetes in healthy postmenopausal women.

Phase-regenerative wavelength conversion in periodically poled lithium niobate waveguides.

We propose and experimentally demonstrate phase-regenerative wavelength conversion in periodically poled lithium niobate waveguides, using either: a single-stage implementation based on a simultaneous combination of two cascaded second-order nonlinear effects in a single periodically poled lithium niobate waveguide, or a two-stage implementation where two separate devices are used in sequence to give rise to the same nonlinear effects. The phase regeneration properties of the proposed wavelength conversion schemes are also investigated.

Analysis of acceptable spectral windows of quadratic cascaded nonlinear processes in a periodically poled lithium niobate waveguide.

We report a systematic and comparative study of the acceptance bandwidths of two cascaded quadratic nonlinear processes in periodically poled lithium niobate waveguides, namely cascaded second-harmonic generation and difference-frequency generation (cSHG/DFG) and cascaded sum-frequency generation and difference-frequency generation (cSFG/DFG). We first theoretically and experimentally study the acceptance bandwidths of both the individual second-harmonic generation (SHG) and sum-frequency generation (SFG) processes in the continuous wave (CW) and pulsed-pump regimes. Our results show that the SHG bandwidth is approximately half that of the SFG process in the CW regime, whereas the SHG acceptance bandwidth can approach the CW SFG bandwidth limit when pulsed-pump is used. As a consequence we conclude that the tuning bandwidths of both cascaded processes should be similar in the pulsed pump regime once the pump pulse bandwidths approach that of SFG (i.e. the cSHG/DFG bandwidth is not limited by the CW SHG bandwidth). We confirm that this is the case experimentally.

Elimination of the chirp of optical pulses through cascaded nonlinearities in periodically poled lithium niobate waveguides.

We propose and demonstrate a novel method for the elimination of arbitrary frequency chirp from short optical pulses. The technique is based on the combination of two cascaded second-order nonlinearities in two individual periodically poled lithium niobate waveguides. The proposed scheme operates independently of the spectral phase characteristics of the input pulse, producing a near-transform-limited output.

Sidelobe suppression in all-fiber acousto-optic tunable filter using torsional acoustic wave.

We propose two techniques to suppress intrinsic sidelobe spectra in all-fiber acousto-optic tunable filter using torsional acoustic wave. The techniques are based on either double-pass filter configuration or axial tailoring of mode coupling strength along an acousto-optic interaction region in a highly birefringent optical fiber. The sidelobe peak in the filter spectrum is experimentally suppressed from -8.3 dB to -16.4 dB by employing double-pass configuration. Axial modulation of acousto-optic coupling strength is proposed using axial variation of the fiber diameter, and the simulation results show that the maximum side peak of -9.3 dB can be reduced to -22.2dB. We also discuss the possibility of further spectral shaping of the filter based on the axial tailoring of acousto-optic coupling strength.

OTDM to WDM format conversion based on quadratic cascading in a periodically poled lithium niobate waveguide.

We propose and demonstrate error-free conversion of a 40 Gbit/s optical time division multiplexed signal to 4 x 10 Gbit/s wavelength division multiplexed channels based on cascaded second harmonic and difference frequency generation in a periodically poled lithium niobate waveguide. The technique relies on the generation of spectrally (and temporally) flat linearly chirped pulses which are then optically switched with short data pulses in the nonlinear waveguide. Error-free operation was obtained for all channels with a power penalty below 2dB.

Analyses of unintentional intensity modulation in all-fiber acousto-optic tunable filters.

We theoretically and experimentally analyze unintentional intensity modulation phenomena in two types of all-fiber acousto-optic tunable filters utilizing flexural and torsional acoustic waves. Output filter signal at a resonant wavelength shows time-varying oscillations with even- and odd-order harmonics of applied acoustic frequency, which are explained by two factors of static mode coupling and acoustic back reflection. The magnitudes of static coupling and acoustic reflection in our devices are estimated from the measured first and second harmonic modulation powers.

Phase sensitive amplification based on quadratic cascading in a periodically poled lithium niobate waveguide.

We propose and demonstrate phase-sensitive amplification based on cascaded second harmonic generation and difference frequency generation within a periodically poled lithium niobate waveguide. Excellent agreement between our numerical simulations and proof-of-principle experiments using a 3-cm waveguide device operating at wavelengths around 1550 nm is obtained. Our experiments confirm the validity and practicality of the approach and illustrate the broad gain bandwidths achievable. Additional simulation results show that the maximum gain/attenuation factor increases quadratically with input pump power, reaching a value of +/- 19.0 dB at input pump powers of 33 dBm for a 3 cm-long waveguide. Increased gains/reduced powers for a fixed gain could be achieved using longer crystals.

Polarization-coupling all-fiber acousto-optic tunable filter insensitive to fiber bend and physical contact.

We show that an all-fiber acousto-optic tunable filter based on polarization mode coupling using torsional acoustic wave is immune to the fiber bend and physical contact in the acousto-optic interaction region. We also propose and demonstrate a novel strain-free and size-reduced tunable filter with a 4-m-long fiber acousto-optic interaction region looped into a 5- cm-diameter coil.

Axial strain dependence of all-fiber acousto-optic tunable filters.

We report the axial strain dependence of two types of all-fiber acousto-optic tunable filters based on flexural and torsional acoustic waves. Experimental observation of the resonant wavelength shift under applied axial strain could be explained by theoretical consideration of the combination of acoustic and optical effects. We discuss the possibility of suppressing the strain effect in the filters, or conversely, the possibility of using the strain dependence for wavelength tuning or strain sensors.

Polarization coupling in a highly birefringent photonic crystal fiber by torsional acoustic wave.

We demonstrate and analyze the acousto-optic coupling between two optical polarization modes of the LP(01) mode propagating in a highly birefringent photonic crystal fiber. The coupling is realized based on wavelength selective acousto-optic coupling by traveling torsional acoustic wave in an all-fiber tunable polarization filter configuration. The dispersion properties of the torsional acoustic wave in the photonic crystal fiber and the influence of axial non-uniformity in the modal birefringence on the filter transmission are discussed in detail.